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Tuesday, October 14, 2025

Gutting the Special Ed Office

 In The Politics of Autism, I discuss the issue's role in presidential politics. Many posts have discussed Trump's bad record on disability issues. As his words and actions have shown, he despises Americans with disabilities. He told his nephew Fred that severely disabled people -- such as Fred's son -- should "just die."

Project 2025 proposed to turn IDEA into a "no strings" block grant, effectively gutting the law and destroying protections that disability families have long relied upon. During the 2024 race, Trump denied any connection to the project, but now he proclaims it, praising OMB director Russ Vought "of Project 2025 fame".

Trump and Vought are now accomplishing their goal of ravaging the law. Instead of shifting it to a block grant, they are firing most of the staff who enforce it.

Cory Turner at NPR:

According to sources, all staff in the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS), with the exception of a handful of top officials and support staff, were cut in Friday's RIF. The office is the central nervous system for programs that support students with disabilities, not only offering guidance to families but providing monitoring and oversight of states to make sure they're complying with the landmark Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

Lisa Lightner:

What does this mean? 
  • Staff responsible for IDEA oversight, state guidance, and enforcement are gone.
  • Many of the technical assistance centers and discretionary grant programs OSEP manages are now unfunded or leaderless.
  • Parent centers and state agencies that rely on OSEP for compliance answers? Emails are bouncing and phones are ringing to no one. (I too, tried emailing some contacts there and it bounced back)The message is clear: OSEP wasn’t restructured. It was erased.
Without OSEP, there’s no one left at the federal level to ensure your school is following the law. No one to oversee FAPE. No one to push back when a district cuts services. And no, this isn’t a drill. It’s happening now.
What This Means for Parents and Teachers — TODAY

You know all those rights you’ve read about in IDEA?

There’s no one left to enforce them.

Fewer protections for your child’s IEP

OSEP was the agency that:

  • Issued guidance letters explaining your rights
  • Clarified gray areas in IDEA
  • Investigated when states or districts broke the law

Now? That accountability structure is collapsing. If your school refuses services or ignores an IEP… there’s no one federally overseeing that anymore.

 


Monday, October 13, 2025

Measles, Fall 2025

In The Politics of Autism, I analyze the myth that vaccines cause autism. This bogus idea can hurt people by allowing diseases to spread.    Examples include measles, COVID, flu, and polio.  A top antivaxxer is HHS Secretary RFK Jr. He is part of the "Disinformation Dozen." He helped cause a deadly 2019 measles outbreak in Samoa.

At CNN, Deidre McPhillips reports that measles outbreaks continue:
A deadly measles outbreak in Texas ended in August, but outbreaks in other parts of the United States continue to add hundreds of new measles cases to this year’s record national total.

There have been an average of 27 new measles cases reported each week since the end of August, according to data from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The annual total – now up to 1,563 cases since January – is the highest by a significant margin since measles was declared eliminated in the US a quarter-century ago.

There’s a new outbreak in Ohio, a recent surge in cases in Minnesota and more than 150 unvaccinated schoolchildren in South Carolina are in quarantine because of an ongoing outbreak there.

Before this year, the US had recorded only 10 large measles outbreaks – defined by the CDC as more than 50 related cases – since reaching elimination status in 2000. But an ongoing outbreak along the border between Arizona and Utah is already the third large outbreak this year.

At NPR,   Maria Godoy writes:

But the true total could be even higher, says Dr. Paul Offit, director of the Vaccine Education Center at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia.

"If you talk to people on the ground, including not only in Texas, but other states, they all say the same thing, which is that the numbers are much worse than that. Probably closer to 5,000 cases," Offit says. "And it's not done."

...

The disease was declared eliminated in the U.S. in 2000. To protect communities against outbreaks, they need a vaccination rate of 95%, according to the CDC.

Nationwide, measles vaccination rates have been slipping for years — they're currently at 92.5%. The trend predates the current administration, but Dr. Adam Ratner, a pediatric infectious disease specialist in New York City, says it doesn't help that Health Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. has a long history of criticizing vaccines. Ratner notes that acting CDC Director Jim O'Neill has suggested breaking up the standard measles, mumps and rubella vaccine into three separate shots, which Ratner says is neither feasible nor is it backed by data.

The Department of Health and Human Services did not immediately respond to NPR's request for comment on Sunday.

"It's no wonder that parents are, you know, confused and frightened," says Ratner, the author of Booster Shots, a history of the fight against measles and its recent resurgence.

Sunday, October 12, 2025

Trump's Attack on People with Disabilities

In The Politics of Autism, I discuss the issue's role in presidential politics. Many posts have discussed Trump's bad record on disability issues. As his words and actions have shown, he despises Americans with disabilities. He told his nephew Fred that severely disabled people -- such as Fred's son -- should "just die."

Arthur Jones II at ABC:
The nation's special education services have been significantly impacted after Friday's mass layoffs within the Department of Education and it could have an immediate impact on children with disabilities, education department sources told ABC News.

"Do people realize that this is happening to this population of vulnerable students?" one education department leader told ABC News.
"[If] there's no staff, who the heck is going to administer this program? That's the absurdity of this," the source, who asked not to be identified for fear of retribution, added.

The department leader stressed that several employees within the offices of Special Education Programs and the Rehabilitative Services Administration -- the two divisions that make up the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS) -- were cut over the weekend.
The agency enforces the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the law creating a free and appropriate education for children with disabilities, and funds special education services to the tune of around $15 billion.

...

Rachel Gittleman, the president of AFGE Local 252, believes all remaining offices in OSERS below the senior executive services level were RIFed Friday.

“The RIF of OSERS and OESE doubles down on the harm to K-12 students and schools across the country, which are already feeling the impacts of a hamstring Office for Civil Rights (OCR) from the March RIF,” she said.

 

 

Saturday, October 11, 2025

Kennedy v. People Who Know What They Are Talking About

In The Politics of Autism, I analyze the myth that vaccines cause autism. This bogus idea can hurt people by allowing diseases to spread.    Examples include measles, COVID, flu, and polio.

He is now Trump's Secretary of HHS. 

He connected circumcision to autism on the grounds that parents often give their kids Tylenol after the bris.  He was talking nonsense, as Ariana Eunjung Cha explains at WP:

The first, which came out in 2013 in Environmental Health, claimed a strong correlation between autism prevalence in males in eight countries and circumcision rates. The authors said the purpose of their study was to look at newborn exposure to paracetamol (another name for acetaminophen, the active ingredient in Tylenol) which they said was widely prescribed since the mid-1990s for male circumcision.

One of the paper’s authors, Ann Bauer, also co-authored a 2025 analysis that linked Tylenol use during pregnancy to an increased risk of autism in children — a paper that officials from the Trump administration cited when issuing a related warning last month. Bauer did not immediately respond to a request for comment.

Helen Tager-Flusberg, a professor emerita at Boston University, called the 2013 study “quite abysmal.”

She questioned the study’s methodology, saying it did not look at key variables related to autism diagnosis such as the average age of parents having children or increased awareness of autism leading to more diagnoses. She said the study did not have enough data to establish a correlation between autism, much less a causal relationship. And she questioned the basic premise of the research in the first place.

...A second peer-reviewed study based on Danish national health system data was published in 2015 in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, a British publication. It claimed that circumcised boys had a 46 to 62 percentage increase in risk of autism spectrum disorder in the first 10 years of life likely than non-circumcised boys. Their explanation for the possible link focused more on pain.

“While no firm conclusions should be drawn at this point, several lines of evidence are compatible with a possible causal role of circumcision trauma in some cases,” the authors wrote. That study called the previous paper’s assumption that boys undergoing circumcision always get paracetamol as a pain medication “questionable” but said they had no data to address the hypothesis.

The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) hit back at an op-ed written by the most recent six surgeons general, who said they wanted to warn the U.S. about the dangers of Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr.

The op-ed, published in The Washington Post on Tuesday, called the health secretary’s policies and positions an "immediate and unprecedented" threat to the nation’s health.

In a statement to ABC News, HHS spokesperson Andrew Nixon said the doctors are the same officials "who presided over the decline in America's public health."...In the op-ed, the surgeons general referenced views held by Kennedy, including repeating the false claim that childhood vaccines cause autism and misrepresenting risks of COVID-19 vaccines, 
despite studies that found the shots prevented millions of hospitalizations and deaths.

...

In the op-ed, the surgeons general referenced views held by Kennedy, including repeating the false claim that childhood vaccines cause autism and misrepresenting risks of COVID-19 vaccines, despite studies that found the shots prevented millions of hospitalizations and deaths.

...

The op-ed comes about a month after seven former directors and two former acting directors of the CDC wrote an op-ed for The New York Times, accusing Kennedy of endangering the health of Americans.

 

Friday, October 10, 2025

RFK Jr. v ... Circumcision?

In The Politics of Autism, I analyze the myth that vaccines cause autism. This bogus idea can hurt people by allowing diseases to spread.    Examples include measles, COVID, flu, and polio.

Today, in a cabinet meeting, U.S. secretary of health and human services Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., claimed that there is a link between autism and circumcision. “There’s two studies that show children who are circumcised early have double the rate of autism. It’s highly likely because they are given Tylenol,” he stated, without citing the studies.
Kennedy was probably referring to a 2013 study of eight countries and a 2015 study from Denmark, both of which claimed to show a link between circumcision and autism rates. Helen Tager-Flusberg, an autism researcher and a professor emerita at Boston University, calls the methods used in those studies “appalling.” Tager-Flusberg leads the Coalition of Autism Scientists, a group that advocates for high-quality autism research.

Neither study shows a causal link between circumcision—or the pain relief medications that are often prescribed along with the procedure—and higher rates of autism. In the decade-plus since each was published, autism researchers have heavily criticized these studies. And after reviewing both studies, scientists last year found no evidence supporting the claim that circumcision leads to autism or any other adverse psychological effects.

There is also very little evidence that giving acetaminophen (sold under the brand name Tylenol) to babies or children increases their risk of being diagnosed with autism. There is also very little evidence, as the secretary of health and human services recently suggested, that acetaminophen taken during pregnancy increases a baby’s risk of developing autism.

Charlotte Causit at AFP:

As for the circumcision theory, the most widely cited paper, published by Danish researchers in 2015, was "riddled with flaws" that were pointed out by other scientists at the time, David Mandell, a psychiatrist at the University of Pennsylvania's Perelman School of Medicine, told AFP.

Specifically, he said, the study relied on a tiny sample of Muslim boys circumcised in hospitals rather than at home -- the dominant cultural practice.

Because those children were hospitalized, Mandell said, it was likely they were "otherwise medically compromised," which could explain higher rates of neurodevelopmental disorders.

 

Thursday, October 9, 2025

KFF Poll on Tylenol and Autism

A number of posts discussed Trump's support for discredited notions about autism The Sept 22 White House news conference was a firehose of lies.

KFF:

KFF’s latest Tracking Poll on Health Information and Trust, fielded a day after the Trump administration warned that taking Tylenol during pregnancy can cause autism in children despite no evidence of a causal relationship, finds that three-quarters (77%) of the public report having heard this claim, and many are unsure whether it is true. Overall, just 4% of adults say it is “definitely true” that taking Tylenol during pregnancy increases the risk of the child developing autism, while a much larger share (35%) say the claim is “definitely false.” Most adults – including majorities across many demographics – express uncertainty, saying the unproven claim is either “probably true” or “probably false.” Belief in this claim is closely tied to partisanship, with most Republicans, including over half of Republican women, saying it is either “probably” or “definitely true.”

 


Wednesday, October 8, 2025

TIkTok, Instagram, Stigma, and Misinformation

 In The Politics of Autism, I examine the role of social media in the development of the issue. 

Ononuju, U.A., Ujari, C.A. Stigma and Misinformation About Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) on Tiktok and Instagram: Content Analysis Using #ASD, #Autism and #ASDinfo. J Autism Dev Disord (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-025-07057-7.  Abstractzzzzzzz;

Background

This study investigates the prevalence, nature, and impact of misinformation, stigma, and general information about autism spectrum disorder (ASD) on TikTok and Instagram.
Objective

The aim of this research was to analyze the content related to ASD on TikTok and Instagram to understand the nature of misinformation, stigma, and their influence on public perceptions of ASD.
Methods

A TypeScript-based scraper was used to extract posts from TikTok and Instagram, focusing on the hashtags #ASD, #Autism, and #ASDinfo. Data was collected over a five-year period from January 2018 to January 2024.
Results

The analysis found that misleading statistics (MIS3) were the most common form of misinformation, accounting for 52.5% of all misinformation. Instagram had a higher prevalence of misinformation (85%) compared to TikTok (74%). In terms of stigma, negative stereotypes (STIG1) were most prominent, with TikTok showing a higher frequency of stigma (88.5%) than Instagram (80%). Supportive community posts (INFO2) made up 48.5% of the posts, with Instagram again leading (65%) over TikTok (63.5%), although TikTok had more interactive engagement. Chi-square tests indicated statistical significance for derogatory language (p = 0.049) and personal stories (p = 0.038), both of which were more prevalent on TikTok. No significant differences were found in other categories.
Conclusions

This study highlights the distinct dynamics of misinformation and stigma across social media platforms, with TikTok showing greater negativity and interactive content, while Instagram provided more supportive community posts. The findings emphasize the need for targeted interventions to address the spread of misinformation and harmful stereotypes about ASD on these platforms.

Tuesday, October 7, 2025

Environmental Exposures

In The Politics of Autism, I analyze the myth that vaccines cause autism. This bogus idea can hurt people by allowing diseases to spread.    Examples include measles, COVID, flu, and polio.

Katie Suleta at the American Council on Science and Health:

In April 2025, RFK Jr. held a press conference during which he made several unsubstantiated claims. Most relevant to the new Autism Data Science Initiative:  “We know it’s an environmental exposure. It has to be. Genes do not cause epidemics.”

He also called studying genetic causes a “dead end.” These statements certainly imply that RFK Jr. believes he knows the causes of ASD, which leads to the second point regarding the motivation behind this initiative. The projects seem to have a theme. See if you can spot it.
“Research supported by NIH and others has shown a strong genetic component to autism risk. However, nongenetic factors—such as environmental exposures and maternal health conditions—are less well understood. Projects will investigate a wide range of influences, including environmental contaminants such as pesticides and air pollutants, maternal nutrition and diet, perinatal complications, psychosocial stress, and immune responses during pregnancy and early development.”

- NIH Press Release on Autism Data Science Initiative
While the press release pays lip service to genetic components in ASD, the projects are very much geared towards environmental factors, RFK Jr.’s belief. To be clear, I'm not saying that we shouldn't study the environmental contributions to ASD further. The problem is that most researchers believe the cause is largely genetic, with some environmental factors contributing to it. However, for RFK Jr., this nuance appears to be absent.

I do not wish to discredit the scientists working on the thirteen funded projects. Quite the opposite. Thankfully, they are largely respected career scientists in the field of ASD research. They come from reputable institutions. These are the people who are better suited than most to quickly pivot to the administration's changing whims and expectations, ensuring that their work can continue. If anyone is up to the challenge, it’s them. My gripe is with the underlying motivations and understandings of the initiative.


Monday, October 6, 2025

RFK and the 2026 Midterms


Tina Reid at Axios:
The autism message will dovetail with broader MAHA efforts to mobilize voters ahead of the midterm elections, including multimillion-dollar ad buys and deploying Kennedy across the country to sell his agenda.But it's not without risk, because tying autism to vaccination has its limits, said Gordon Hensley, a former HHS senior adviser in the first Trump Administration and a GOP campaign strategist. Hensley believes White House staffers are "likely a lot happier seeing Secretary Kennedy talking about the fundamental MAHA precepts of chronic disease prevention, reforming the food supply and the like, as opposed to fomenting CDC infighting and vaccination chaos."

A Quinnipiac University poll late last month showed Kennedy's approval ratings are dwindling, with 33% saying they approve of the way Kennedy is handling the job, compared with 38% when they polled voters in June. A majority of voters (57%) said they don't have confidence in the medical information Kennedy cites, the poll found. Kennedy's contentious testimony in front of Congress and upheaval at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention "may have struck a nerve with voters who were less familiar with where he stood on the issues," Quinnipiac polling analyst Tim Malloy said. Republicans in Congress have responded to the autism messaging with caution. Senate Majority Leader John Thune (R-S.D.) warned against weakly supported health claims, and Senate health committee chair Bill Cassidy (R-La.) criticized the claims.


Saturday, October 4, 2025

Will Texas Kill an Autistic Man?

 In The Politics of Autism, I discuss interactions between the justice system and autistic people.

An autistic man is on death row for a crime he didn't commit.  Texas Governor Greg Abbott would not grant a reprieve.  Texas is about to kill him.

Jacquie Benestante is the executive director of the Autism Society of Texas.


Robert Roberson, who was diagnosed with Autism only after his wrongful conviction, is facing execution in Texas on October 16, 2025. His death sentence stems from critical misinterpretations of his behavior during his daughter’s illness – misjudgments that have led to a tragic miscarriage of justice.

Organizations and individuals are fighting to stop this miscarriage of justice. Stay informed on what is happening – updates will be added here regularly.

  • ACTION ALERT – Take action now! 
  • (09/24/25) Watch our YouTube presentation cohosted by Autism Society of America and the Innocence Project – with presenters Connie Kasari, PhD • Natalie Montfort, PhD • Sir Simon Baron-Cohen, PhD • Matthew Belmonte, PhD

📢 Rally this Saturday, 10/4/25, at the Texas State Capitol
Join us at the Texas Capitol (South Steps) at 1 PM. Speakers include the Autism Society of Texas, legislators, and advocates, coordinated by The Innocence Project.

👉Learn more about the Robert Roberson case, Innocence Project

👉 Read our Executive Director’s Op-Ed,  Austin American-Statesman, or read text below

👉 Watch our video: Robert Roberson, Autism & Injustice with Simon Baron-Cohen, PhD, Connie Kasari, PhD, Natalie Montfort, PhD, and Matthew Belmonte, PhD.

👉Robert Roberson’s legal battle intensifies as execution date looms, WFAA – DFW

👉Autism advocates urge Texas to halt execution of Robert Roberson, KERA -Texas Public Radio

👉Texas death row inmate Robert Roberson abandons clemency plea and calls for new trial ahead of his execution, The Daily Mail

——

10/1/25-Austin American-Statesman- Article by our Executive Director, Jacquie Benestante

Autism fed into his wrongful conviction. Don’t execute Robert Roberson

Link: https://www.statesman.com/opinion/columns/your-voice/article/autism-fed-wrongful-conviction-don-t-execute-21073772.php

Texas plans to execute a man whose autism was misunderstood as guilt. There’s still time to stop a tragic miscarriage of justice.

Jacquie Benestante, October 1, 2025

Autism has been much in the news lately. As executive director of the Autism Society of Texas, I hope this increased awareness helps us better serve the needs of people with autism and recognize their important gifts. At the same time, however, people with autism continue to face a lack of understanding that can have profoundly negative consequences, particularly when they come into contact with the criminal justice system. Robert Roberson’s case is the most extreme example of this problem.

Roberson is not only autistic, he is an innocent man who is scheduled to be executed on Oct. 16. From everything I know about Roberson’s case, I believe that his then-undiagnosed autism played a central role in his wrongful arrest, conviction and death sentence in connection with the 2002 death of his chronically ill toddler daughter, Nikki.

Overwhelming medical and scientific evidence proves that Nikki died because of severe pneumonia, exacerbated by dangerous, improperly prescribed medications. Her death was tragic, but it was not a crime, and Roberson did not cause it.

As the Autism Society of Texas and the Autism Society of America wrote in a recent open letter to Texas authorities urging them to stop Roberson’s execution: “A lack of awareness and understanding about (his) developmental disability seems to have been unwittingly held against him and greatly contributed to his wrongful conviction and death sentence.”

When Roberson brought Nikki to the only emergency room in rural Palestine, Texas, and when law enforcement interviewed him, they perceived his lack of outward displays of emotion as a manifestation of “guilt.” In reality, this was a product of his autism.

Hospital staff and police officers described Roberson as “odd,” “nonchalant,” “unemotional,” “detached” and “uncaring.” The jurors heard these damning characterizations, but were unaware of Roberson’s autism, or that his outward demeanor masked intense distress. That misperception, together with the prosecution’s use of the now-debunked “Shaken Baby Syndrome” hypothesis and no review of Nikki’s medical history, put an innocent man on death row.

Years after his trial, Roberson was finally evaluated by a qualified expert and received an autism diagnosis. This delay in diagnosis is frustratingly common, particularly for people like Roberson who grew up in poverty and had unstable family circumstances. But even as a child, Roberson was identified as having “special needs,” including a speech delay and other impairments consistent with his eventual diagnosis. His speech impairments and repetitious stammers are evident in a recent video interview published by this newspaper.

On Sept. 24, the Autism Society of Texas co-hosted a panel discussion entitled “Robert Roberson, Autism and Injustice.” Four renowned experts explained how people with autism are at an elevated risk for wrongful conviction and excessive punishment when they come into contact with the criminal justice system. Just as in Roberson’s case, people with autism often “shut down” when faced with extreme circumstances and overwhelming emotions, leading to a rush to judgment against them and harmful assumptions about how they may be feeling or thinking in the moment.

Brian Wharton was the lead detective who investigated Nikki’s death, interrogated Roberson and testified against him at trial. Wharton has now come to understand how Roberson’s autism, and not any criminal culpability, was responsible for the seemingly “flat” way he presented himself during their interactions as if he had no idea how serious his daughter’s condition was. Wharton has also come to believe, unequivocally, that Roberson is innocent, and that Texas made a terrible mistake in his case.

Our justice system must work to better serve those with autism and prevent injustices. I hope that we are moving in the right direction as a society. But for Robert Roberson, time is running out to prevent irreparable harm. Texas must not allow this execution to proceed.

Jacquie Benestante is the executive director of the Autism Society of Texas.

Wednesday, October 1, 2025

Profound Autism 2025

The most basic questions trigger angry arguments. For instance, into what category do we put autism in the first place? In 2013, President Obama said that “we’re still unable to cure diseases like Alzheimer's or autism or fully reverse the effects of a stroke.” The language of “disease” and “cure” offends some in the autism community. “We don’t view autism as a disease to be cured and we don’t think we need fixing,” says Ari Ne’eman of the Autistic Self-Advocacy Network. “We do feel comfortable with the word disability because we understand what it means.” From this perspective, autism is difference that requires accommodation, not an illness that requires eradication. Adherents of this position liken autism to homosexuality, which psychiatrists once deemed to be a  disorder. Conversely, some parents take offense at opposition to a cure. “Anyone with the mental and verbal ability to challenge autism research is not autistic on a scale that I care to recognize,” writes autism parent James Terminello. “Opposition to finding a cure is particularly hurtful to parents who still mourn the loss of the child that could have been. A line has been crossed.”

Azeen Ghorayshi at NYT:
[Allison] Singer, who is the head of the Autism Science Foundation, a nonprofit that funds autism research, is one of a group of parents and clinicians who are calling for the autism spectrum diagnosis to effectively be split in two, saying it has become so broad that it is obscuring the experiences of the seriously disabled people it was first meant to describe, like her daughter.

At major autism conferences and in scientific journals, the group has proposed the creation of a separate category, called profound autism, for people with the most severe disabilities.

An estimated one in 31 8-year-olds in the United States has an autism diagnosis, according to the most recent data, up from one in 150 8-year-olds in 2000. While the most severe autism cases account for a small part of that increase, most of the surge reflects a rise in the number of higher-functioning people getting diagnosed.

Parents of children with severe autism say the wider diagnosis has come at a steep cost: Research that includes people with the most significant impairments has declined year over year, even as overall funding for autism research has grown substantially.

And a survey of 800 families, conducted this year by the National Council on Severe Autism, found that 80 percent had been told their children were too disruptive even for classrooms and services tailored to students with autism and other disabilities.

“Autism has become so diluted, we can’t really tell what we’re talking about anymore,” Jill Escher, the founder of the national council who has two adult children with profound autism, said.

 

Prevalence of children with autism

While both profound and non-profound autism among 8-year-old children increased from 2000 to 2016, the increase was greater for non-profound autism.

Note: Data based on a study of the prevalence of profound and non-profound autism among 8-year-old children at 15 sites in the United States in the Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, in even-numbered years from 2000 to 2016.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

By Yuhan Liu

Pa